Clinical Studies

This article isn't fully developed, there are many studies that could go on this page that aren't here at the moment.

Causes of Myopia

Lens induced myopia (LIM) & axial length change in humans

• "Significant changes in optical axial length occurred in human subjects after 60 minutes of monocular defocus." IOVS, 2010
• "The human eye is able to discern the sign of defocus within minutes after exposure to blur and make changes in its axial length in a direction to reduce the amount of retinal blur", Scientific Reports, 2020
• "During relatively short periods of accommodative stimulation, axial length increases in ... young adults", IOVS, 2006
• "The eye undergoes a significant axial elongation associated with a brief period of accommodation...", OVS, 2010
• "It is therefore clear that preventive approaches need to concentrate on measures that prevent or reduce axial elongation, since this would result in a reduction in both the need for refractive correction and the long-term pathological outcomes", Acad Med Singapore, 2004
• "Refractive correction of myopia will lead to accelerated progression", OPO, 2007
• "Continuous correction of myopia results in a linear progression that increases myopia...", GACEO, 2015
• "...A reduction in the axial length of the adult eye serves as an emmetropizing mechanism...", AJOPO, 1987
• "...This study found that small but significant bi-directional changes in SFCT (Sub-Foveal Choroidal Thickening) were caused by retinal defocus in healthy presbyopic subjects aged 50 to 67 years of age....", IOVS, 2018

Lens induced myopia (LIM) & axial length change in animals

• "Extrapolation of these (animal) findings to humans predicts that natural emmetropization (normal eye development) will be inhibited...by early intervention with prescription lenses..." OPO, 2007
• "It has been suggested that environmental factors such as extensive near work act as triggers of myopia....The expression of AL (Axial Length) genes activated by environmental factors leads to the elongation of AL (Axial Length)." Ophthalmologica, 2011
• "Hyperopic defocus accelerated vitreous chamber elongation (Axial Length) and produced myopic shifts in refractive error...Following lens removal, the...monkeys recovered from the induced myopia..." IOVS, 2013
• "We demonstrated that eyes of young animals of various species (chick, tree shrew, marmoset, and rhesus macaque) can shorten in the axial dimension in response to myopic defocus." IOVS, 2013
• "The chick eye is able to change its refractive state by as much as 7 D by pushing the retina forward or pulling it back (when stimulated by lense use)..." VR, 1995
• "Chicks' eyes rapidly compensate for defocus imposed by spectacle lenses...The complex etiology (cause) of human myopia may reflect these temporal properties." IOVS, 2009
• "If the effective focal length of a growing eye is modified by spectacle lenses, the eye compensates by altering its growth, thereby keeping images in focus..." VR, 2002
• "In a matter of minutes, the eye can know which way to grow..." IOVS, 2005
• "...spectacle lenses could predictably alter the growth of...eyes resulting in ... refractive changes in both the hyperopic and myopic directions." VR, 1999

Nearwork-Induced Transient Myopia (NITM) & Nearwork Causing Permanent Myopia (PM)

• "Today there no longer seems to be any question that nearwork is a causal factor for myopia. " The Lancet, 2000
• "People who do an excessive amount of near-vision work may experience a false or "pseudo" myopia...Clear distance vision usually returns after resting the eyes. However, constant visual stress may lead to a permanent reduction in distance vision over time. " American Optometric Association
• "Near work which is a primary, environmentally based factor in the development and progression of permanent myopia (PM) may take effect via near work-induced transient myopia (NITM)." ZYJZZ, 2012
• "...based on recent converging evidence from clinical, laboratory and modelling studies, a five-fold argument will be advanced for a possible link between PM (Permanent Myopia) and NITM (Nearwork-Induced Transient Myopia)." OPO, 2008
• "Continuous reading, close distances of reading, television viewing... and use of fluorescent desk light were significantly associated with myopia... which indicates that visual behaviors and environments may be important factors mediating the effects of near work on myopia.." PLoS, 2015
• "The current study provides novel evidence, based on objective data, to support the association between the intensity of near work, light intensity and myopia..." BrJO, 2020
• "Near work such as close reading distance (< 30 cm) and continuous reading (> 30 minutes) independently increased the odds of having myopia in this sample of children." IOVS, 2008
• "The purpose of the present study was to...investigate the possible relation between NITM (Nearwork-Induced Transient Myopia) and PM (Permanent Myopia); and to determine the possible associations with NITM " IOVS, 2008

Reversing Myopia

Outdoor time & distance vision

• "It is now well established that spending more time outdoors during childhood lowers the risk of developing myopia..." BrJO, 2020
• "Outdoor activity reduces the prevalence of myopia in children." Opthamology, 2008

Using reduced or no lenses (myopic defocus)

• "Our findings suggest that myopic defocus (using reduced lenses) slows the progression of myopia in already myopic children, supporting previous findings from animal studies..." IOVS, 2004
• "Compared with SV lenses (Normal Glasses), myopia progression was found to be retarded by PALs (Bifocals / Reduced Lenses) to some extent in Chinese children" OPO, 2008
• "Results of this study suggest that such children, if myopic, may have an additional benefit of slowed progression of myopia." IOVS, 2004
• "Eyes of chick, tree shrew, marmoset, and rhesus macaque can shorten axially when presented with myopic defocus...Implications for human myopia control are significant." IOVS, 2013
• "The results suggest that imposed peripheral myopic defocus (reduced lense use) may be able to be used to control on–axis axial elongation (myopia progression)..." GACEO, 2017

Active Focus (accomodative training or accomodative facility training)

• "Training of the accommodative system (active focus)...resulted in improved dynamics...This is consistent with earlier reports in the literature of improvements..." OVS, 2009
• "This study evaluates the effect of accommodative facility training (active focus) in myopes and emmetropes (normal sighted)....The results showed that training (active focus) improved the facility rate (results) in both groups..." VR, 2010
• "These results suggest that accommodative facility training (active focus) is an efficient method built on loss of symptoms among children..." DO, 1999
• "The result of this study indicates that accommodative facility training (active focus) has a real effect on the amplitude of relative accommodation in patients with impaired relative accommodation..." OPO, 2001
• "This experiment shows the effectiveness of automated accommodative training (active focus) in reducing asthenopia (eye strain) and improving accommodative facility." AmJOPO, 1987